Archaeologia Austriaca, Band 100/2016, 19–55
© 2016 by Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien
doi: 10.1553/archaeologia100s19
19
Bronze Age Copper Produced
at Mitterberg, Austria, and its
Distribution
Ernst Pernicka
Joachim Lutz
Thomas Stöllner
Abstract
Zusammenfassung – Bronzezeitliche Produktion von Kupfer am
The rich copper ore deposits in the eastern Alps have long been considered as important sources for copper in prehistoric central Europe.
However, the role that each deposit played is not clear. To evaluate
the amount of prehistoric copper produced from the various mining
regions, we attempted to link prehistoric metal artefacts with copper
ores based on the geochemical characteristics of the ore deposits that
were exploited in ancient times. Alongside the usage of ores as shown
by the finished products, the production aspects, the quantity and
variation over time must also be considered. Recent archaeological
investigation has allowed these datasets to be combined in order to
show the importance of one of the largest Bronze Age mining fields
in Europe. More than 120 ore samples from the well-known mining
regions of Mitterberg, Viehhofen, and Kitzbühel were analysed for
lead isotope ratios and trace element concentrations. These results
were combined with analytical data generated by previous archaeometallurgical projects in order to compile a substantial database for
comparative studies. In the Early Bronze Age, most metal artefacts
were made of copper or bronze with fahlore impurity patterns, and
most examples from this period match the fahlore deposits in Schwaz
and Brixlegg. At the end of the Early Bronze Age, a new variety of
copper with low concentrations of impurities appeared. The impurity patterns of these examples match the ores from the Mitterberg
region. Later, in the Middle Bronze Age, this variety of copper almost
completely replaced the fahlore copper. In the Late Bronze Age, the
exploitation of the ores changed again and copper with a fahlore signature reappeared. The reason for the renewed copper production
from fahlores might have been a decline of the chalcopyrite mines.
But it was more likely due to the fact that the rising demand for copper could no longer be met by the chalcopyrite mines alone. The examples from the Early Iron Age show no fundamental changes in
metal composition. The copper metallurgy in the Early Iron Age is
based on the traditions of the Late Bronze Age.
Mitterberg und seine Verteilung
Die reichen Kupferlagerstätten in den Ostalpen werden seit langem
als wichtige Rohstoffquellen für das Kupfer im prähistorischen Europa betrachtet. Dennoch war bislang nicht so klar, welche Rolle
einzelnen Lagerstätten in diesem Zusammenhang zukam. Um die
Bedeutung der Kupferproduktion in einzelnen Bergbaurevieren besser zu verstehen zu können, wurde nach der Verbindung zwischen
Metallartefakten und der geochemischen Charakteristik einzelner in
prähistorischer Zeit abgebauten Lagerstätten gesucht. Doch neben
den Aspekten der Nutzung von Erzkörpern, welche durch die Endprodukte angesprochen sind, müssen auch Produktionsfragen, etwa
nach der Gesamtmenge der Kupferproduktion und ihrer zeitlichen
Variation, beachtet werden. Jüngste archäologische Untersuchungen
erlauben eine präzise Kombination beider Datengrundlagen. Sie ermöglichen neue Einblicke in die Bedeutung einer der größten Bergbaulandschaften der Bronzezeit in Europa, des Mitterbergs. Mehr als
120 Erzproben der gut bekannten Bergbaureviere Mitterberg, Kitzbühel und Viehhofen wurden anhand ihrer Pb-Isotopen-Verhältnisse
und Spurenelementmuster untersucht. Diese Ergebnisse wurden mit
bisherigen analytischen Daten archäometallurgischer Projekte kombiniert und so eine substantielle Basis für Vergleichsstudien erreicht.
In der Frühbronzezeit bestanden die meisten Metallobjekte aus
einem Kupfer mit typischer Fahlerzsignatur. Es passt gut zu den
Fahlerzlagerstätten von Schwaz und Brixlegg. Am Ende der Frühbronzezeit erschien eine neue Kupfervarietät mit geringeren Spurenund Nebenelementanteilen. Dieses Spurenelementmuster stimmt
bestens mit den Erzen der Mitterberger Bergbauregion überein. In
späterer Zeit verdrängte diese Kupfersorte gänzlich das FahlerzKupfer. In der späten Bronzezeit änderte sich die Ausbeute der Erze
erneut und Fahlerzkupfer-Signaturen erschienen erneut. Der Grund
für die erneute Ausbeute des Fahlerzkupfers könnte ein Rückgehen
der Kupferkiesproduktion sein, wahrscheinlicher ist aber, dass die
Kupferkiesproduktion den Bedarf an Kupfer allein nicht mehr zu
decken vermochte. Die Funde der frühen Eisenzeit zeigen keine fundamentalen Änderungen in der Metallzusammensetzung mehr. Die
Kupferproduktion der frühen Eisenzeit basiert im Wesentlichen auf
den Traditionen der Spätbronzezeit.
Keywords
Mitterberg, prehistoric mining, copper production, lead isotope analysis, provenance of copper, eastern Alps.
20
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
Schlüsselbegriffe
Mitterberg, prähistorischer Bergbau, Kupferproduktion, Bleiisotopenanalyse, Herkunft von Kupfer, Ostalpen.
1. Introduction (E. Pernicka, J. Lutz, T. Stöllner)
It has long been known that the copper deposits in the Mitterberg region in the eastern Alps were mined on a large scale.
Mitterberg is actually the first copper mining site that was
investigated archaeologically.1 Ground-breaking studies on
the production processes used were published by Kyrle and
Klose,2 and on the mining techniques and ore beneficiation
by Zschocke and Preuschen.3 They documented numerous
mines and the remains of extractive metallurgy like furnaces
and close to 200 slag sites. The site was exceptionally favourable for the study of ancient mining and smelting techniques, because the mine seems to have been abandoned after the Bronze Age. It was only rediscovered in 1827; mining
resumed in 1837 and ended in 1977. There was therefore no
medieval or later exploitation of the mine that would have
destroyed most of the ancient traces.
Further investigation addressed earlier research activities in the area around the mines, e.g. the work of Richard
Pittioni and his fellow researchers4 at the prehistoric mining region of Kitzbühel some 50 km further west. In the
Mitterberg region, archaeological research concentrated on
ore beneficiation5 and the search for settlement structures.
These are preferentially located in the valleys and the focus
was on subsistence strategies6 and the spatial organisations
of the mining communities and their structures.7 New underground investigations8 began with the HiMAT research
cluster that was based at the University of Innsbruck and
comprised multidisciplinary research on all aspects of mining in the eastern Alps.9 A summary of this project was published in the series ‘Archäologie Österreichs Spezial’ Volume 4.10 In the following paper, we will concentrate mainly
on the mining region around the town of Bischofshofen,
commonly addressed simply as the Mitterberg prehistoric
mining region, its production of copper in the Bronze Age
as reflected by field studies and chemical and isotope analy-
Much 1878. – Much 1879.
Klose 1918. – Kyrle 1918.
3 Zschocke, Preuschen 1932.
4 Preuschen, Pittioni 1937. – Pittioni 1947. – Preuschen, Pittioni 1954.
5 Eibner-Persy, Eibner 1970. – Eibner 1972. – Eibner 1973.
6 Lippert 1992. – Shennan 1995.
7 Stöllner 2003.
8 Stöllner, Eibner, Cierny 2004. – Stöllner et al. 2009.
9 Oeggl et al. 2008.
10 Goldenberg et al. 2012. – Stöllner et al. 2012.
ses of its ores, and by copper-based artefacts in central and
northern Europe.
2. Geological Setting and Mineralisations (E. Pernicka)
The most important ore deposits in North Tyrol, Salzburg
and Styria occur in the Greywacke Zone, a belt of Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks trending from east to west in the Austrian Alps between the northern Calcareous Alps and the central eastern Alps. The unit consists of Paleozoic sediments
(turbidites, greywackes and limestones) from the Ordovician to Devonian age and of mafic volcanic rocks from the
Cambrian/Ordovician age. These rocks are relatively soft
and prone to weathering. In the western Upper Inn Valley
near the Arlberg, the Greywacke Zone forms only a narrow
strip, but then widens to the east to include large parts of the
Tux Alps, the Kitzbühel Alps and the Salzburg Slate Mountains. Further to the east it runs along the upper Enns Valley,
the Eisenerz Alps and the Mürz Valley. Numerous copper
deposits occur in this sedimentary unit, related to mafic
volcanism. The primary ore assemblage consists mainly of
chalcopyrite and pyrite11 on the one hand, and fahlore12 on
the other. Traces of ancient mining show that many of these
deposits were exploited in prehistory.
Well-known prehistoric mining areas belonging to this
zone are (from west to east) Schwaz and Brixlegg in the
Lower Inn Valley,13 the Kitzbühel region,14 Viehhofen in
the Glemmtal, the Mitterberg region south of Salzburg15
and other mining districts in the Eisenerz Alps and Lower
Austria further to the east (Fig. 1).
It has always been presumed that these mines supplied
copper for large parts of central Europe in the Bronze Age.
However, such claims have not been supported convincingly by demonstrating a clear relationship between ores and
Bronze Age metal artefacts, although many analyses were
performed by Pittioni and Neuninger.16 An example is the
discussion on the provenance of the so-called Ösenringe,
which are mainly found in hoards, and in some cases in large
numbers. They were usually interpreted as ingots, i. e. for the
storage and transport of raw copper, and their geographical
distribution was related to the east Alpine copper deposits.17
1
2
11 Mitterberg: Bernhard 1965. – Weber, Pausweg , Medwenitsch
1972. – Weber, Pausweg , Medwenitsch 1973. – Weber 1997.
12 Schwaz/Brixlegg: Gstrein 1988. – Gstrein 1989.
13 Rieser, Schrattenthaler 1998–1999.
14 Preuschen, Pittioni 1937. – Goldenberg 2004. – KochWaldner, Klaunzer 2015.
15 Zschocke, Preuschen 1932. – Eibner 1994. – Stöllner 2011.
16 E.g. Pittioni 1957. – Pittioni 1959. – Neuninger, Pittioni
1962. – Neuninger, Pittioni 1963.
17 Bath–Bílková 1973. – Menke 1982.
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
21
Fig. 1. Prehistoric mining districts in the eastern Alps. Graphic symbols: squares = areas with a large number of copper smelting sites; downward pick hammer = ancient/prehistoric mining areas; circles = prehistoric copper-producing mining regions (after Stöllner 2009).
On the other hand, work by Neuninger and Pittioni18 based
on trace element analyses concluded that the Ösenhalsringe
came from Slovakia or the Carpathian Mountains because
of the high concentrations of arsenic, antimony and silver
in these artefacts, suggesting the use of fahlores for the production of this copper. Since fahlores are only an accessory
component in the ores from the Mitterberg, they excluded this region as a possible source for this type of copper.
However, a small percentage of the Ösenringe did match the
Mitterberg ores chemically and they called this type of copper, with a significant trace-element pattern, ‘Typ Mitterberg-Kelchalm’.19 The problem with these analyses is that
they were obtained using semiquantitative atomic emission
spectroscopy. Element concentrations were only reported
with symbols (+++, ++, +, tr) and the authors stated that
each symbol would indicate the order of magnitude of the
element concentrations. Unfortunately, this is not correct
as has been shown by Christoforidis and colleagues,20 who
compared the results with neutron activation analyses of a
number of the same ore samples from Kitzbühel and Schwaz
that were analysed by Neuninger. Subsequently, most geochemical and mineralogical investigations focused on the
mining areas of Schwaz and Brixlegg due to their historical
18
19
20
Neuninger, Pittioni 1963.
Neuninger, Pittioni 1963.
Christoforidis, Pernicka, Schickler 1988.
importance for metal production in more recent times beginning in the 15th century AD.21 In contrast to these areas in
North Tyrol, only limited modern analytical data (INAA,
ICP-MS, lead isotopes) were available from the Mitterberg
region. These will be presented here.
In the Mitterberg region there are three recognisable
lithological units22 that are interpreted as sediments ranging
from the Silurian to the Devonian age (grey series) and interspersed with basal conglomerates (e.g. at the Götschenberg),
to Upper Carbonaceous (violet series) and Permian (green
series). The grey series was deposited in a marine basin, partly under strongly reducing conditions. This is reflected in
the vegetation remains that are rich in uranium. The series
was folded during the Variscan orogeny and is discordantly
overlain by the violet series that resembles the formation of
flysch. It is also characterised by uranium anomalies. The
green series was deposited under very different conditions
that may have mobilised the copper, but essentially, the
copper deposits are mainly strata-bound. The Alpine orogeny caused fractures in the green series and may have led to
partial remobilisation of the metal inventory according to
some features of a hydrothermal deposition like bleaching
Höppner et al. 2005.
Weber, Pausweg, Medwenitsch 1972. – Weber, Pausweg,
Medwenitsch 1973.
21
22
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
22
Fig. 2. Simplified geological profile of the Mitterberg region (Weber, Pausweg, Medwenitsch 1972) with the southern sector and the main
lode, and an intercalation of quartzitic conglomerates in the lower parts of the violet series that are exposed at the Götschenberg at a lower
altitude (Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, Bochum, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Institute of Archaeological Studies).
zones along the main lode reported by Clasen.23 A schematic
profile of these geological units and their relationship to the
copper deposits is shown in Fig. 2.
As described above, the mines of the region can be divided into three sectors: the main lode that continues towards
the east with several smaller veins; the sector south of the
Mühlbach creek with the Brander, Burgschwaig, and Birkstein lodes; and finally the Buchberg and Winkel lodes east
of the Salzach River. The mineralisations also show three
types that are usually associated with different stages of ore
formation. The main lode north of the river is a very large
discordant steep vein system that cuts the grey and the violet series and is zoned vertically. According to Bernhard,24
the first mineralisation stage was dominated by nickel-rich
pyrite (FeS2), the second by chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), which is
the dominant mineral species, and the third by cobalt-rich
copper ores mainly in the eastern extensions from the main
lode and in the Buchberg lode that also strikes on an axis
from north to south. In the southern sector the mineralisation is strictly strata-bound with small veinlets of pyrite,
chalcopyrite and erythrite (an oxidised cobalt arsenate).
Accessory minerals include gersdorffite (NiAsS), millerite
(NiS), arsenopyrite (FeAsS) and fahlore, mainly of the tetrahedrite (Cu12Sb4S13) type. This can include arsenic, because
tetrahedrite forms a solid solution with its arsenic-bearing
tennantite (Cu12As4S13). A host of other rather minor accessory minerals are known but are irrelevant for this discussion. The gangue material mainly consists of quartz (SiO2),
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), siderite (FeCO3) and ankerite
(Ca(Fe,Mg,Mn)(CO3)2).
3. The Mitterberg: A Large Copper-Producing Region in the
2nd Millennium BC (T. Stöllner)
If we consider the question of a metal ore deposit and its
socioeconomic importance, we must look both at processes of production and consumption. Ideally these factors
overlap chronologically and/or in quantity once produced
and consumed. However, since the record of archaeological
and archaeometric sources is incomplete, we must be more
moderate in our expectations.
Our knowledge about copper production in the eastern and southern Alps has reached a considerable level:25
technology, subsistence and development in time can be described in general terms. In some parts of the mining district,
our knowledge includes detailed insights into the structural
components of living and working and their development
over time. This is certainly the case for the mining sectors
alongside the Salzach Valley and around the town of Bischofshofen26 (Fig. 3).
The area is generally known as the Mitterberg mining region although the Mitterberg is only the name of an Alpine
pastoral landscape around the largest mining relics of the
Bronze Age (see above). Over the course of the research that
started here very early in the 19th century, this region has
gained a high profile. Consequently, the Mitterberg process
describes the technological and economic complex and the
principles of copper production from chalcopyrite, which
is the major ore mineral in this region.27 This technological
complex consists of deep underground mining, various ore
beneficiation steps and smelting in shaft furnaces, whose
25
23
24
Clasen 1974.
Bernhard 1965.
26
27
See various contributions in Stöllner, Oeggl 2015.
Eibner 1994. – Recently Stöllner 2015.
Eibner 1982.
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
23
Fig. 3. The Mitterberg mining region (the mining field of Mühlbach-Bischofshofen) at the centre of the Salzach-Pongau region as displayed by
mining lodes (and their surface depressions), beneficiation and smelting sites as well as settlements, single finds and graves (Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, Bochum, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Institute of Archaeological Studies).
construction and operation principles are characteristic of
many of the east Alpine mining regions of the Bronze- and
Early Iron Ages. However, it is nowadays clear that the
earliest remains of this technology are found in the Salzach-Pongau area, from where it may have spread to the entire eastern and southern Alps and beyond.28
4. The Mitterberg Process: Regional and Chronological
Aspects (T. Stöllner)
According to calculations by Zschocke and Preuschen29
and more recently by Stöllner et al.,30 we can consider the
Salzach-Pongau mining region as the largest and most productive (see below) known in the eastern Alps and possibly
even in Europe in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. But
to understand the socioeconomic conditions, the effects of
population, landscape and exchange patterns (such as trade),
28
29
30
Stöllner 2009.
Zschocke, Preuschen 1932.
Stöllner, Hanning, Hornschuch 2011.
it may be worth regarding the chronology of the spatial distribution in the Salzach-Pongau mining region. There is a
bundle of ore deposits that were exploited during the 2nd and
the early 1st millennium BC. The so-called ‘main lode’ in the
north of the region must be considered the most important
of the mining sectors. The veins range over several kilometres in a direction stretching from east to west from the piedmont of the Hochkönig massif and north of the Hochkeil
peak to the eastern lodes near Bischofshofen.31 The western part, known as the St Josefi lode and its accompanying
side lodes were mined to depths of nearly 120 m below the
surface. Around the mines, several large ore dressing areas
are known that reflect the time-consuming work of dry
and wet ore beneficiation. At a somewhat greater distance,
nearly 100 smelting sites were documented and partly dated
(Fig. 3), which provide perfect insight into the spatial organisation of wood consumption, transport of (beneficiated) ores to the smelting sites, and the matte production that
31
Bernhard 1965. – Weber, Pausweg, Medwenitsch 1973.
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
24
Fig. 4. Bayesian modelling of the AMS 14C dates from the main lode
(after Stöllner 2009; remodelled with OxCal v4.2.4) (Deutsches
Bergbau-Museum, Bochum, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Institute of
Archaeological Studies).
took place there. It is not yet clear whether black copper was
also produced at these sites that were operated presumably
in a seasonal manner. Production seems to begin around the
18th/17th century BC and reaches a climax between the 15th
and the 13th centuries. A few younger radiocarbon dates as
well as pollen and heavy metal records from local bogs indicate a general decrease in activity (Fig. 4).32
The mining sectors alongside the Salzach Valley are geologically different. The southern sector for instance consists
of three lodes that are embedded syngenetically in the Si-
lurian and Devonian slates of the grey series.33 These ore
lodes do not match the rich ore mineralisation of the main
lode. The Brander, Burgschweig and the Birkstein lodes are
aligned alongside the Einödberg ridge from the northwest
to southeast (Fig. 3). Evidence for ancient mining, such as
mining depressions and glory holes, is abundant on the
surface, accompanied by underground exposures as in the
Arthur-Stollen. In the Middle Bronze Age, mining galleries
reached depths of nearly 200 m.34 Similar to the main lode,
beneficiation areas and also some smelting sites are located
besides the mining entrances along the steep slopes of the
Einöd ridge. From our field work it seems that all the mining and smelting activities were smaller in size and number
compared with the main lode. Most of our knowledge derives from archaeological investigations at the Brander lode.
Mining started there no later than the 19th and 18th century
BC, and lasted at least until the Urnfield and Early Hallstatt periods. This is not yet reflected by 14C or dendrodates
(Fig. 5) but by some single finds from the mining house ensemble at the Einödberg near the Höch farmstead.35 Even
small-scale Copper Age mining seems conceivable according to scattered pottery fragments discovered around the
Höch farmstead.36
A third mining area can be located east of the Salzach
Valley. The Buchberg lode represents a series of mining
depressions running from north to south with at least two
lines of glory holes (Fig. 3). It seems that two lodes near
the surface were mined during the Bronze Age. Only a few
smelting sites are known in the surrounding area. According to modern underground galleries, the prehistoric miners
did not reach the 100 m level below surface, but stopped
before that. South of the Buchberg lode the east–west trending Winkel or Arzberg lode is situated. Only little is known
about the time of exploitation and the technology used to
mine this site, but at least one of the neighboring smelting
sites was recently surveyed and dated to the Middle to Late
Bronze Age.37 The variety of stone tools found in the surroundings of the Winkel lode suggests domestic activities
nearby. This fits the general impression gained from all the
mining sectors of the Mitterberg region. Mining houses and
camps seem to reflect the usual way of life in the production
areas during the (presumably) seasonally organised working periods. Although the exploitation of the Buchberg and
Winkel lodes has not been precisely dated yet, there is no
doubt it generally belongs to the Bronze Age. Another indication is provided by the Sky Disc of Nebra whose metal
33
34
35
36
32
Breitenlechner et al. 2014.
37
Weber, Pausweg, Medwenitsch 1972.
Stöllner et al. 2009.
Zschocke, Preuschen 1932, 114–125. – Recently Eibner 2016.
Stöllner 2009, 42–45 and Fig. 5.
Stöllner 2009, 44 and Fig. 6.
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
Fig. 5. Bayesian modelling of the AMS 14C dates from the southern mining sector (Brander and Burgschweig lodes) (according to
Stöllner, 2009; remodelled with OxCal v4.2.4; Bronk-Ramsey,
2013) (Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, Bochum, Ruhr-Universität
Bochum, Institute of Archaeological Studies).
can be related to the eastern mining sector, especially the
Buchberg lode. This would also suggest the beginning of
mining operations at least in the later phases of the Early
Bronze Age.38 Putting these pieces of information together,
it is quite likely that mining first began east and west of the
Salzach Valley before the more demanding big ‘enterprise’
at the remote main lode could be opened.
This underlines the importance of the Salzach Valley
where we can locate various important activities. Smallscale settlements are known from various hill-top sites
alongside the Salzach River, but larger settlements are still
missing. They may have been buried beneath river sediments in the valley and there are indeed some indirect indications39 of this. These include stray finds of bun ingots, a
few graves, and also scattered indications of flat settlements
may eventually revise opinion in favour of a densely settled
area around Bischofshofen.40 This is made even more apparent during the later Urnfield period and the Early Iron Age
by the large Pestfriedhof cemetery,41 which was probably
related to contemporary mining activities at the eastern part
of the Hochkeil.42 Still lacking is clear evidence for the final
production steps such as the reduction of matte to blister
copper as well as the alloying and casting of objects. As argued elsewhere, it is at least clear that locally used toolsets
must have been produced nearby.43 The majority of the bun
ingots consist of foreign fahlore and chalcopyrite copper
indicating regional exchange of different copper types that
may have been melted together to produce finished products for regional demand and beyond.44
In summary, the Mitterberg/Salzach-Pongau copper
deposits were exploited from the 19th or 18th century BC onwards. The peak of copper production occurred during the
later phases of the Middle and the earlier phases of the Late
Bronze Age (15th to 12th centuries BC) and may have declined especially at the main lode during the middle and late
Urnfield period from the 11th century BC onwards. Nevertheless, mining continued to a certain extent into the Iron
Age, when chalcopyrite copper was already being blended
with fahlore-type copper (especially from the Inn Valley)
on a large scale. Since intense contact with the southeastern
Alpine regions is indicated by grave goods from the Pestfriedhof, it is important to ask if the mixture with fahloretype copper either from the Inn Valley or from regions
south of the Alpine range became an important backbone
of production in the later phases between the 10th and the
7th centuries BC.45
5. Approaches to Quantifying Production (T. Stöllner)
It is difficult to assess the quantity of copper produced between the 18th and 7th centuries BC in the Mitterberg region.
Since most mines are no longer accessible, it is impossible
to calculate precisely the output of each mine in all periods
of operation. As already mentioned, our knowledge is different in quality and quantity of dates for different mines
(see Figs. 4–5). Based on radiocarbon dates from smelting
sites, settlements and mining operations, we propose a
Bayesian model for the southern sector and the main lode
assuming that production was closely linked in both areas
so that all the dates can be considered to relate to one general
40
41
42
43
44
38
39
Lutz et al. 2010, see below.
Lippert 1992.
25
45
Stöllner et al. 2016.
Lippert, Stadler 2009.
For the mining area at the Hochmoos see Gstrein, Lippert 1988.
Stöllner, Schwab 2009. – Stöllner et al. 2016.
Stöllner et al. 2016.
See Northover 2009.
26
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
Fig. 6. Temporal sequence of centennial dating occurrences (in percentage) of the main lode and the
southern sector in correlation with a Gaussian standard distribution according to the dating limits of
the single mining sectors; overarching events are counted 0.5 for each of the century (Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, Bochum, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Institute of Archaeological Studies).
period of operation. This will even allow us to model a more
detailed yield of copper in different periods of operation
(see Fig. 6). The number of 14C-dates from production sites
is still too limited to support a detailed model, especially
for the smaller sectors of the ‘Mitterberg’ region. But if we
take account of all 75 dendrochronological and radiocarbon
dates, we can give a rough production estimate especially for
the main lode.46 The chronological sequence thus obtained
Seventy-five dates have been obtained from the main lode: 32 14C
dates (see Fig. 4) and 43 dendrodates with forest edges (Sormaz, unpublished report and Nicolussi, Pichler, Thurner 2015, 239–253,
esp. 239–241). This contrasts with 20 14C dates from the southern district (see Fig. 5) and 40 dendrodates (Sormaz, Stöllner 2009). We
would like to thank all colleagues for years of mutually fruitful and
trustful cooperation, especially K. Nicolussi, T. Pichler, T. Sormaz
and A. Thurner from Innsbruck and Chur. It must be mentioned that
some dating sequences might well be overemphasised by the selection
of samples that derive from excavation sites such as the Troiboden or
the Arthurstollen gallery.
46
is in agreement with other parameters such as the detailed
pollen- and heavy-metal records in neighbouring bogs.47 As
described above, exact modelling is more difficult for the
southern sector, and impossible for the mining sectors east
of the Salzach Valley, because of an insufficient number of
dates.48
If we regard the number of dates as a rough reflection of
the intensity of mining, then this resembles a Gaussian distribution. There is no doubt that the most productive period
at the main lode was between the 15th and the 13th centuries
BC with around 70 % of all measured dates falling within
this timeframe (Fig. 6). A similar chronological sequence
can be observed when regarding the dates so far known
from the southern sector (although there are archaeological
biases). When combining all currently available dates, a focal period can be assumed between the 16th and 14th centuries
47
48
Breitenlechner et al. 2014.
Stöllner 2009, 44 and Fig. 6.
27
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
Tab. 1. Estimates of copper production and losses during the various production steps in the Mitterberg district.
Copper
content in
the debris
Dry beneficiation (5 %)
Wet beneficiation
(5 %)
Dry and wet beneficiation (analyses
and empirical data)
1.5 %
Amount
of copper
left
Loss on smelting 13 % (empirical data)
Final
amount
15,500
3900 (based
on 25 % loss
estimated from
analyses)
11,600
Copper
production
main lode
17,000
Copper
production
main lode
17,000
250
16,900
2200
14,700
Copper
production
main lode,
eastern part
1700
26
1700
220
1480
Copper
production
Brander
lode
5300
80
5300
690
4600
Copper
production
Burgschweig lode
1100
17
1100
140
1000
Copper
production
Bürgstein
lode
200
3
200
25
170
Copper
production
Buchberg
lode
400
6
400
50
340
Copper
production
Winkel
lode
800
12
800
100
690
26,500
400
26,400
3400
23,000
Sum
(rounded
values)
830
830
BC, and this would comprise around 80 % of all measured
dates (Fig. 6).
This still leaves open the question of how to achieve a
reasonable calculation of the amount of copper once produced. As the mines themselves are not accessible any longer, any estimate has to be based on earlier calculations
outlined by Zschocke and Preuschen.49 They started from
mining debris and their copper content, which they calculated according to empirical data after nearly 100 years of
modern mining. As the Mitterberg deposits did not have
large oxidised enrichment zones, even near the surface, it is
easier to assume an average copper content there than elseZschocke, Preuschen 1932.
Zschocke,
Preuschen
1932
Stöllner,
Hanning,
Hornschuch
2011
where. In following steps, Zschocke and Preuschen50 calculated the losses but did not base them on empirical data,
preferring assumptions (e.g. in dry and wet beneficiations,
in the smelting processes). It has recently been shown by
analytical and taphonomic studies of beneficiation and
smelting sites51 that the losses are smaller than previously
assumed. This indicates better control of copper losses and
greater yield of copper (see Tab. 1).
Using the new figures on copper losses, we calculate that
roughly 14,700 t of copper were produced at the main lode
Zschocke, Preuschen 1932, 128–135.
Stöllner, Hanning, Hornschuch 2011. – Hanning et al.
2013.
50
51
49
Reference
28
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
Tab. 2. Estimate of copper production at the main lode and the southern sector in the context of a rough estimate
outlining the temporal development of production.
Initial period
(18th−16th cent. BC)
Copper production, main lode district (metric tons, %)
10,600 (72)
2580 (18)
Initial period
(19th/18th−17th cent. BC)
Boom phase
(16th−14th cent. BC)
Posterior phases
(12th cent. BC to ?)
580 (101)
4600 (83)
340 (6)
and about 5500 t for the Burgschweig and Brander lodes
together (southern sector). In total, this means that roughly
20,000 t of copper were produced in the Mitterberg mining
region between the 16th and 13th centuries (Tab. 2). This may
provide a general idea about the important position that the
Mitterberg deposits once had during the Middle and the
beginning of the Late Bronze Age for the neighbouring regions, and even for the transregional distribution of copper.
There is no doubt that more detailed information on the
periods of operation and also on further econometric parameters may influence and even alter the numbers given
here. However, such calculations are certainly a step forward to arriving at a better understanding of the economic
and social impact of this production centre for the European
Bronze and Early Iron Age.
6. Samples and Analytical Techniques (E. Pernicka, J. Lutz)
In order to obtain an overview of the chemical and lead isotope composition of the copper ores for comparison with
Bronze Age metal artefacts, 95 ore samples and 12 slag
samples were collected in several field campaigns in total.
It must be mentioned that it is not at all easy to collect representative ore samples in such a large mining region. First,
apart from the Arthurstollen, the mines are no longer accessible, so samples had to be sought in waste heaps and
significant outcrops near the ancient shafts. However, the
best find locations had been depleted by mineral collectors,
while less-known spoil heaps are usually overgrown by
vegetation and not easy to identify in the field. The samples are listed in Table 352 and the sampling locations are
roughly equally distributed between the three sub-regions
shown in Figure 7. They were chemically analysed using
neutron activation analysis (NAA, for Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, As,
Sb, Ag, Au, Se, Te, Zn, Sn) and inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry with a quadrupole ion filter (QICP-MS,
for Pb, Bi) (Tab. 4)53. Furthermore, the lead isotope ratios
were determined in some of the ore samples and, in addition, in some slag samples from the Mitterberg region using
multi-collector ICP-MS following the procedure described
by Niederschlag et al.54 The isotope ratios of lead were
measured and corrected for mass discrimination by addition of Tl. A value of 205Tl / 203Tl = 2.3871 was taken and an
exponential relationship assumed. 204Pb was corrected for
the isobaric interference with 204Hg by measuring 202Hg and
using a 204Hg / 202Hg ratio of 0.2293. The in-run precision of
the reported lead isotope measurements was in the range of
0.02 to 0.08 % (2σ) depending on the ratio considered.
To assess the impact of the Mitterberg region on the
regional supply of copper, some 800 samples of mainly
Late Bronze Age prehistoric copper and bronze finds from
North Tyrol, Salzburg and southern Bavaria were available.
These were analysed by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence during a research project funded by the Volkswagen
foundation.55 An even larger number of chemical analyses
of Early Bronze Age objects exists from central Europe.
These data were obtained with emission spectroscopy and
compiled during the research at the Württembergisches
Landesmuseum Stuttgart.56 From the Middle Bronze Age
and Early Iron Age, only few analyses have been published.
The second focus of our research was to analyse bronze objects especially from the Middle Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age to close these gaps in the chronology, and to
compile a substantial database for the east Alpine region
with analyses of finds from the beginning of metallurgy in
the Neolithic up to the Early Iron Age. About 730 objects
were sampled (drill samples) and analysed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), with selected samples also screened using
NAA, QICP-MS and multi-collector ICP-MS (lead isotope
ratios).
Niederschlag et al. 2003.
Sperber 2004.
56 Junghans, Sangmeister, Schröder 1968a, b, c. – Junghans,
Sangmeister, Schröder 1974.
54
55
53
Posterior phases
(12th−9th cent. BC)
1440 (10)
Copper production, southern district (metric tons, %)
52
Boom phase
(15th−13th cent. BC)
Table 3 can be found on pp. 48–50 at the end of this paper.
Table 4 can be found on pp. 51–53.
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
29
Fig. 7. The Mitterberg mining region (the mining field of Mühlbach-Bischofshofen) and its main Bronze Age mining fields (green) with the
sampling locations of slag heaps, slag tempered ceramics, and ores (Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, Bochum, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Institute
of Archaeological Studies).
7. Trace Element and Lead Isotope Patterns of the Ores
(E. Pernicka, J. Lutz)
A major characteristic of the copper ores of the east Alpine
Greywacke Zone is their generally low concentration of
impurity elements. In the copper ores from the Mitterberg
region only arsenic and nickel are generally present. This is
due to the occurrence of gersdorffite, as is indicated by the
high correlation of arsenic and nickel (Fig. 8a). In the east
Alpine Greywacke Zone, two major types of copper ore
are typically found: fahlores of the tennantite-tetrahedrite
series (Cu12As4S13 - Cu12Sb4S13) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) /
pyrite (FeS2) ores. In the Mitterberg region, fahlores do exist
but only as an accessory mineral. Accordingly, the copper
ores have relatively low concentrations of As, Sb, Ag and
Bi. There is only a weak correlation between arsenic and
antimony at concentrations above 1 % (Fig. 8b), which may
indicate that these samples do contain some fahlore. Since
fahlores are usually the major carriers of silver in such a mineral association, there should also be a correlation visible in
the silver-antimony diagram (Fig. 8c). However, since this
trend is rather weak, if present at all, the fahlore at Mitterberg seems to contain silver only in the range of 0.1 % as
indicated by one sample with almost 10 % antimony. This
is quite different from the fahlores in the Inn Valley that
contain around 1 % silver and often more, but it is similar to
the copper ores around Kitzbühel.57
However, the chalcopyrite ores from the Mitterberg
region can be differentiated from the ores from Kitzbühel-Kelchalm, which are otherwise quite similar, by their
lower bismuth and selenium concentrations. Among the
Mitterberg veins there are also some systematic differences
that can be visualised by regarding the pattern of seven trace
element concentrations (Fig. 9). For example, the Brander
lode contains more cobalt and nickel than the other veins.58
The lead isotope ratios of ores from the Greywacke
Zone show a large variation (especially in the Mitterberg main lode) due to generally low lead combined with
57
58
Christoforidis, Pernicka, Schickler 1988.
Lutz et al. 2010.
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
30
100
Ni [%]
10
1,0
0,10
a
0,01
0,001
0,01
0,10
1,0
10
100
As [%]
10
Sb [%]
1,0
0,10
0,01
b
0,001
0,001
0,010
0,10
1,0
10
100
As [%]
10
Sb [%]
1,00
0,10
0,01
occasionally high uranium concentrations. When a mineral
crystallises and incorporates lead into its crystal structure,
it acquires the Pb isotopic composition of its parent reservoir. This is called ‘common lead’.59 Since copper and lead
minerals incorporate Pb, but generally cannot accommodate uranium and thorium, the lead isotope ratios will not be
changed unless subsequent processes result in the addition
or loss of lead, or the addition of U and Th. This is used in
geology to infer a date for the formation of these crystals using the so-called ‘common lead method’. In archaeometry,
one simply uses the fact that lead isotope ratios in copper
and lead deposits can be different and thus distinguished
from each other depending on the time of their formation
and the geochemical environment of their source regions.
As described above, the Mitterberg copper ores are
closely associated with uranium minerals so that in an ore
charge there will be ‘common lead’ mixed with radiogenic
lead. The latter is the lead that was produced by the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium to radiogenic 208Pb,
207
Pb and 206Pb over the entirety of geological time up to the
present. Since the mixing ratios of radiogenic and common
lead can vary at the millimetre scale, each ore charge smelted may have different lead isotope ratios that vary over a
large range. This is shown in Figure 10. Unfortunately, this
situation is not just confined to the copper ores of Mitterberg. There are other deposits in the Old World that show
a similar spread of lead isotope ratios, e.g. Rudna Glava in
Serbia,60 Timna and Feinan,61 Sardinia,62 the Erzgebirge,63
and presumably many others. In an alternative diagram of
the lead isotope ratios it may also be possible to distinguish
between different regions, e.g. the Erzgebirge and Mitterberg (Fig. 11) which would not be possible in a diagram like
in Figure 10.
For this reason it is difficult to establish a relationship
between a single metal object and the Mitterberg deposits
based only on lead isotope ratios. However, as we shall see
below, the slope of the correlation trend may be different
in different regions so that a suite of copper objects that is
thought to derive from one region can, with limitations, still
be related to it by lead isotope ratios. The lead of syngenetic
ores from the Mitterberg region (Winkel, Buchberg,
Brander, Burgschwaig and Birkstein lodes), KitzbühelKelchalm and Viehhofen is less radiogenic than the lead of
the epigenetic Mitterberg main lode. In summary, we are
c
0,001
0,001
0,010
0,10
1,0
Ag [%]
59
60
61
Fig. 8. Diagrams of element concentrations in the ore samples from
Mitterberg, (a) As-Ni, (b) As-Sb, (c) Ag-Sb (CEZA, Mannheim).
62
63
Faure, Mensing 2005.
Pernicka et al. 1993.
Hauptmann et al. 1992. – Hauptmann 2007.
Boni, Köppel 1985.
Niederschlag et al. 2003.
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
31
Fig. 9. Trace element patterns in
ores from the Kelchalm deposit
and from the Mitterberg region
(several different veins). The interdecile range for some elements
(Sb-As-Ni-Co-Ag-Se-Bi) is
plotted on the Y-axis in the same
order. The trace element signature
of the Kelchalm deposit is clearly
different from the Mitterberg
veins (CEZA, Mannheim).
2,12
2,08
208Pb/206Pb
2,04
main lode
southern district
eastern district
copper slag
Kitzbühel Kelchalm
Viehofen
2,00
1,96
1,92
Fig. 10: Lead isotope ratios in ores
from the Mitterberg region. The
ores from the epigenetic main lode
are more radiogenic than the syngenetic ores from the other veins
(CEZA, Mannheim).
1,88
1,84
0,70
0,72
0,74
0,76
0,78
0,80
0,82
0,84
0,86
207Pb/206Pb
now confident that the ore deposits we have investigated up
to now can be differentiated geochemically by combining
trace element concentrations and lead isotope ratios.
8. Comparison with Bronze Age Metalwork (E. Pernicka,
J. Lutz)
8.1 The Metal Hoard from Moosbruckschrofen (Middle
Bronze Age)
This hoard (about 360 objects) is the largest metal accumulation of the Middle Bronze Age in central Europe. It
was found in 2001 in a crevice of the ragged hillock Moosbruckschrofen near the town of Fliess64 and consists entirely of broken implements of various types including sickles,
axes, swords, spirals, and ornamental discs in very good
condition. It is interpreted as a cultic deposit rather than
the accumulation of scrap metal.65 All metal objects except
some black copper ingots were made of bronze and cover a
range of some 200 years from the beginning to the end of the
64
65
Tomedi, Nicolussi Castellan, Pöll 2001.
Tomedi 2001.
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
32
15,8
207
Pb/ 204 Pb
15,7
15,6
Erzgebirge
eastern Alps
15,5
18,0
18,5
19,0
206
19,5
20,0
Pb/ 204 Pb
Fig. 11. Alternative diagram of lead isotope ratios in ores from the Mitterberg region compared with copper
ores from the Erzgebirge (CEZA, Mannheim).
Fig. 12. Trace elements in blister copper from the Moosbruckschrofen hoard compared with ores from the Mitterberg region (CEZA, Mannheim).
Middle Bronze Age. The impurity patterns of the bronzes
and ingots are relatively uniform. The fragments of black
copper are most suitable for provenance studies because
their geochemical fingerprint was most likely not altered
by alloying, mixing or recycling. The trace element analyses
and lead isotope ratios of the blister copper and most of the
bronze objects match the geochemical data of the ores from
the Mitterberg (Figs. 12–13). Only arsenic tends to be lower
than in the copper ore samples from the Mitterberg. Among
the four elements considered it is the most volatile and can
partly be lost on (re)melting. Actually, when considering
lead isotope ratios, it is possible to be more specific and suggest the eastern sector as the most likely source of the ingot
copper. Moreover, all ingots also consist of low-impurity
copper consistent with the copper ores from Mitterberg. It
is, therefore, impossible to decide if mixing of scrap metal
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
33
2,12
main lode
2,08
southern district
eastern district
copper slag
208Pb/ 206 Pb
2,04
Moosbruckschrofen
copper ingots
2,00
1,96
1,92
1,88
1,84
0,70
0,72
0,74
0,76
0,78
0,80
0,82
0,84
0,86
207Pb/ 206Pb
Fig. 13. Lead isotope ratios in blister copper from the Moosbruckschrofen hoard compared with ores from
the Mitterberg district (CEZA, Mannheim).
had occurred or not, because on re-melting, copper from
only one source would not induce any significant compositional change nor change the lead isotope ratios. If the interpretation of a cultic deposition is accepted then re-use
of the metal is in any case not to be expected. Spindler even
addresses the find at the Moosbruckschrofen as a ‘temple
hoard’ and thus leaves no doubt about the symbolic character of its context.66 He also dates the earliest objects of the
hoard, two wing-headed pins, in agreement with Tomedi67
to around 1600 BC, which is consistent with the field observations that, in the Mitterberg region, mining began east
and west of the Salzach Valley, while the main lode seems to
have been opened only somewhat later.
8.2 Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Finds from Southern
Bavaria, Salzburg and North Tyrol
In the 1990s, almost 800 prehistoric metal objects and ingots
of black copper/fahlore copper from southern Bavaria, Salzburg and northern Tyrol were analysed within the scope of
an archaeometallurgical project funded by the Volkswagen
Foundation,68 including more than 70 bun-shaped ingots.
About one quarter of these match the geochemical data of
the ores from the chalcopyrite deposits (Mitterberg, Kelch-
66
67
68
Spindler 2006.
Tomedi 2002.
Sperber 2004.
alm and Viehhofen). The impurity patterns of another quarter of the ingots correspond with the fahlore deposits of the
Inn Valley. In contrast to the ingots, most bronze objects
show mixed impurity patterns (Fig. 14a).
There are two possible explanations for the mixed compositions. One interpretation is that metals of different
compositions were mixed intentionally in order to reduce
the high content of arsenic and antimony to a tolerable level
and to improve forgeability. More probable is the existence
of different hoarding practices. In the Late Bronze Age in
central Europe and beyond, hoards of broken implements
appear that often also contain broken ingots. These have
commonly been interpreted as hoards of scrap metal intended to be re-used at some later time. In this case mixing
would of course be unavoidable and since two major copper
types were in circulation (fahlore and low-impurity copper)
the result would be copper with compositions somewhere
between the two end-members. Actually, there is a third
possibility, namely the intentional addition of fahlore-type
copper to low-impurity copper as a substitute for tin as
suggested by inverse trends of tin concentrations compared
with those of antimony and silver, especially in the later
phases of the LBA.69 The reason might be a shortage of tin
due to increased demand of metal.
Stöllner et al. 2016. – For Swiss metals see Sperber 2004, 330
and Tab. 3.
69
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
34
Fig. 14. Concentrations of silver and antimony in fahlores from the Inn valley Schwaz/Brixlegg) and in chalcopyrite ores from
Mitterberg, Kitzbühel and Viehhofen compared with LBA ingots and bronze objects from Tyrol, Salzburg and southern Bavaria
(a) and Early Iron Age bronze objects from Fliess (b). While the ingots largely reflect the different compositions of the ores, the
bronze objects predominantly plot between the two clusters of copper ores indicating mixing (CEZA, Mannheim).
The effect of mixing is seen in Figure 14a. The copper
ingots with a fahlore signature (black copper) contain less
antimony than the ores, which is due to the fact that substantial parts of arsenic and antimony are lost on smelting
fahlores.70 Otherwise, only a few of the ingots show mixed
signatures. Quite the opposite is true for the bronze objects,
which exhibit predominantly mixed compositions.
This pattern is retained in the Early Iron Age hoard of
Fliess as shown in Figure 14b. This hoard was discovered in
1990 during construction works in the town of Fliess and
comprises 385 bronze objects dated to the 7th and 6th centuries BC.71 It was investigated because little evidence existed
for mining and extractive metallurgy in the east Alpine region in this period. It is unknown whether the decline at the
end of the Bronze Age is real or merely a gap in archaeometallurgical research. The hoard contains many types such
as brooches that can be identified as imports from distant
regions, but also implements like winged axes, chisels, saws,
and files that can be attributed to local production. The latter are plotted in Figure 14b and again show predominantly
mixed compositions between fahlore signature and low-impurity copper.
70
71
Pernicka 1999.
Sydow 1995.
8.3 Transregional Distribution of Mitterberg Copper
The Early Bronze Age Nebra hoard, which comprises the
Nebra Sky Disk, two bronze swords decorated with gold
cuffs, two flanged bronze axes, two bronze arm spirals and
one bronze chisel, was discovered during an illegal excavation in 1999 on the Mittelberg in southern Sachsen-Anhalt,
central Germany. Scientific investigations of the hoard and
particularly of the Sky Disk initially concentrated on authentication by mineralogical, trace element and lead isotope
analyses of the bronze, the mineralogical and chemical composition of the corrosion layer and soil adhesions, and the
technology of manufacture.72 More detailed investigations
on the manufacturing technique were published by Berger and colleagues73 including the study of the 0.1–0.4 mm
thin gold sheets that had been plated and punched onto the
bronze disk, which measures about 32 cm in diameter. The
gold inlays have been interpreted as a sun or full moon, a
crescent-shaped moon, and 32 stars. Two of the stars were
removed and the position of a third was changed when two
horizon arches were later attached to the disk, followed by
Pernicka, Wunderlich 2002. – Pernicka et al. 2008. – Pernicka 2010.
73 Berger, Schwab, Wunderlich 2010.
72
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
35
Fig. 15. Trace elements in ores from the Mitterberg region and in finds from the Nebra hoard (CEZA, Mannheim).
2,12
2,08
208Pb/206Pb
2,04
Mitterberg main lode
Mitterberg southern district
Mitterberg eastern district
Mitterberg copper slag
Nebra Sky Disc
Nebra hoard
2,00
1,96
1,92
1,88
1,84
0,70
0,72
0,74
0,76
0,78
0,80
0,82
0,84
0,86
207Pb/206Pb
Fig. 16. Lead isotope ratios in ores and prehistoric slag from the Mitterberg region compared with the Nebra
hoard and the Sky Disk of Nebra (CEZA, Mannheim).
the final attachment of a boat or barge.74 The constellation of
the gold inlays suggests that the disk initially may have been
used for calendrical purposes,75 making the Nebra Sky Disk
the earliest astronomical representation of the night sky.
The archaeological context of the Sky Disk can be deduced from the accompanying finds in the hoard, which can
all be dated to the developed Early Bronze Age in central
Europe around 1600 BC, the end of the classical Únětice
74
75
Meller 2010.
Schlosser 2003.
Culture. This date of burial of the hoard was confirmed by
14
C analyses of a small piece of birch bark found in the handle of a sword. However, the date of manufacture of the Nebra Sky Disk remains unknown due to the lack of a suitable
physical method for dating metal objects.
The trace element patterns of all objects of the Nebra
hoard exhibit an excellent match with the new data of the
ores from the Mitterberg (Figs. 15–16). The lead isotope ratios of the metal finds also correspond very well with the
slag samples from the Mitterberg area. There is a marginal
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
36
208
Pb/206Pb
2,12
2,08
Mitterberg
Mitterberg slag
Slovakia
Valais cp
southern Alps
2,04
2,00
0,80
0,82
0,84
0,86
207
Pb/206Pb
Fig. 17. Lead isotope ratios of the Mitterberg region (eastern Alps) compared with copper ores from the
Hron Valley in Slovakia (Schreiner 2007), Eneolithic copper smelting slags from Trentino and Alto
Adige (Artioli et al. 2015) chalcopyrite ores from the Valais in Switzerland (Cattin et al. 2011). The latter
two data sets could be further differentiated by the 206Pb/204Pb ratio but this is not relevant in this context
(CEZA, Mannheim).
systematic difference between the lead isotope ratios of the
ores and the slag samples (Tabs. 5–6)76. The reason might be
a different lead isotopic signature of additional fluxes used
in the smelting process, or the separation of uranium phases
and radiogenic lead while processing the ores (milling,
washing). Furthermore, the validity of the relationship between copper ores from the Mitterberg region and the Nebra hoard is strongly corroborated by the finding that most
copper deposits in Germany and the Czech Republic have
different lead isotope ratios as was shown by Frotzscher.77
Recently published results of lead isotope analyses of copper ores from the Valais in Switzerland,78 the Hron Valley
in Slovakia79 and the Trentino in Italy80 are also different
(Fig. 17). Accordingly, the combination of trace-element
pattern and lead isotope ratios of the Mitterberg ores can be
considered more or less unique among the copper deposits
in central Europe. It is characterised by nickel and arsenic
as major impurities that usually occur in roughly equal concentrations and by generally low silver concentrations below 0.05 %.
The wider distribution of the Mitterberg copper was
investigated by comparing the trace element pattern of the
ores with a large database of chemical analyses of prehistoric
metal objects in Europe and the Mediterranean region, dating mainly from the early metal ages, i. e. earlier than roughly 1500 BC. The core of this database is formed of the analyses performed at the Württembergisches Landesmuseum
in Stuttgart with atomic emission spectrometry,81 to which
analyses performed with neutron activation and X-ray fluorescence were added. It was shown that the Stuttgart data
are essentially accurate and can, therefore, be pooled and
classified together.82 Cluster analysis of some 25,000 datasets based on the element concentrations of As, Sb, Ni, Ag,
and Bi has largely confirmed the earlier classification of the
Stuttgart team.83 In the present context, this database was
used in a different way in that similar patterns in mean values
of As, Sb, Ni, and Ag in the objects from the Nebra hoard
were searched for. Two search intervals were used. First, the
mean values were multiplied by a factor of ± 2, and in a second run by a factor of ± 4 as already successfully applied by
Tables 5–6 can be found on pp. 54–55 at the end of this paper.
Frotzscher 2009.
Cattin et al. 2011.
Schreiner 2007.
Artioli et al. 2015.
81 Junghans, Sangmeister, Schröder 1960. – Junghans, Sangmeister, Schröder 1968a, b, c. – Junghans, Sangmeister, Schröder 1974.
82 Pernicka 1984.
83 Pernicka 1990.
76
77
78
79
80
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
37
Fig. 18. Distribution of metal objects dating to the Early Bronze Age with similar trace element patterns as the Nebra hoard. The size of the
symbols relates to the number of objects at each site. The red symbols indicate the smaller search interval and the yellow symbols the larger
one (see text for explanation) (CEZA, Mannheim).
Klassen and Pernicka.84 The narrow interval represents the
rather low precision of the Stuttgart data of around ± 30 %
relatively.85 Thus, if the mean value of e.g. arsenic is 0.214 %,
then the search interval was between 0.107 and 0.428 % and
similarly for the remaining elements. With this interval, objects which had exactly the same trace element pattern as the
Nebra hoard (that derived its copper from the Mitterberg
region as has been shown above) would be identified. The
larger interval allows a difference of a factor of 16 between
the lower and upper limit. However, since the trace element
concentrations in ore deposits usually range over more than
one order of magnitude, this filter would still detect objects
that may derive from the same type of copper deposit. The
result for roughly contemporary finds to the Nebra hoard
is shown in Figure 18.
84
85
Klassen, Pernicka 1998.
Pernicka 1984.
It may be noted in passing that such a result would not
have been possible with the classification method that was
suggested by Bray et al.,86 who simply regard the ‘presence’
or ‘absence’ of the elements As, Sb, Ag, Ni as important.
As a dividing line, they arbitrarily define a concentration of
0.1 % for all these elements. With this approach, the Mitterberg ores would be divided into two or three different
compositional groups. It is interesting that this concept was
already unsuccessfully proposed by Richard Pittioni87 who
used semiquantitative analyses with a detection limit of
about 0.001 % for these elements, which is geochemically
and metallurgically more justified. Nevertheless, numerous
studies, not least the one by the Stuttgart team themselves,
have shown that it is not only worthwhile but essential
to use multivariate statistics to extract usable information
86
87
Bray et al. 2015.
Pittioni 1959.
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
38
LING et al. 2014 fahlore type
Inn Valley
2,10
Buchberg raw copper
Buchberg ores
208Pb/206Pb
2,06
2,02
1,98
1,94
0,78
0,80
0,82
0,84
0,86
0,88
207Pb/206Pb
Fig. 19. Lead isotope ratios of Swedish copper objects with a fahlore signature (Ling et al. 2014) compared with fahlore samples from the Inn Valley between Innsbruck and Brixlegg (Höppner et al. 2005)
and copper ores and raw copper from the Early Bronze Age site of Buchberg near Brixlegg (Schubert,
Pernicka 2013) (CEZA, Mannheim).
from quantitative multi-element analyses. Equally so, the
compositional classification by Bray et al.88 does not stand
up to the complexity of the data with the simplified yes/no
presence of trace-element concentrations and an unsubstantiated threshold arbitrarily set at 0.1 wt % without any geochemical or metallurgical justification. Moreover, it proves
the case that classification of continuous data with a discontinuous method is inappropriate and does not advance the
scientific interpretation of an existing set of archaeometallurgical data. Last but not least, it is impossible to identify
metal recycling patterns with such a method, and in effect
the models based on this methodology are producing incorrect patterns of human behaviour. The weakness of this
approach is also exemplified by Perucchetti et al.,89 which
produced a much more confused distribution of compositionally different Chalcolithic and Bronze Age copper
objects from the distribution maps by Junghans et al. and
Spindler,90 and practically without any new insights.
Although the comparisons are based only on the
trace-element patterns, it is evident from Figure 18 that
there can be no doubt that the Mitterberg region was an im-
88
89
90
Bray et al. 2015.
Perucchetti et al. 2015.
Junghans et al. 1968. – Spindler 1971.
portant source for copper in prehistoric central Europe. A
detailed discussion of this distribution map is still pending
but the two large symbols in Hungary east of the Danube
and in northwest Romania are the hoards of Hajdúsámson
and Apa, which are consistent with Mitterberg copper in
their trace element patterns as well as in their lead isotope
ratios91 indicating the flow of this metal type from the Alpine piedmont into the Carpathian basin in the east and into
western France along the Saone River in the west.
A second agglomeration of data points along a route towards the north to southern Scandinavia is also prominent.
There are very few lead isotope ratios available for
Bronze Age metal objects from this region, but a few dozens were published by Ling and colleagues in 2013 and again
with some additional analyses in 201492 together with major
and trace element compositions obtained with electron microprobe analysis. The dates of this sample suite range from
the Late Neolithic II to Period V according to the relative
chronology of northern Europe,93 i. e. from about 2000 to
700 BC in absolute terms. These authors have attempted
to identify the ore sources of the prehistoric metal objects
91
92
93
Pernicka 2013. – Pernicka et al. 2016.
Ling et al. 2013. – Ling et al. 2014.
Kristiansen 1998.
39
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
94
95
96
97
98
Ling et al. 2014.
Ling et al. 2013. – Ling et al. 2014.
Höppner et al. 2005.
Höppner et al. 2005.
Martinek 1996. – Sydow 1996. – Schubert, Pernicka 2013.
fahlore-type copper
chalcopyrite copper
100
frequency [%]
80
60
40
Per III
Per II
20
0
Bz A2/3
Bz B/C
Early Bronze Age
Middle
Bronze
Age
Bz A1/2
2000
1600
Bz D
Ha A
Ha B
Late Bronze Age
1200
Ha C/D
Early
Iron
Age
800
BCE
100
80
frequency [%]
found in Sweden based only on lead isotope ratios, and came
to the conclusion that the majority of the objects derived
their copper from Mediterranean sources (southern Iberia,
Sardinia, Laurion in Attika, Greece, and Cyprus) but 17 out
of 71 objects were attributed to North Tyrol, while Swedish
copper ores could be excluded.
The problem with such affirmative assignments is that
there are many copper mineralisations in such a large area
like the whole of Europe and the Mediterranean, so there is
bound to exist an overlap of the lead isotope ratios of various ore deposits. It would therefore be necessary to check
if the chemical composition of the proposed ore sources
were also consistent with such assignments. For the objects
related to Brixlegg in North Tyrol it is mentioned that, in
addition to matching lead isotope ratios, the objects contain high percentages of silver, arsenic and antimony, i. e. a
fahlore signature that resembles the Ösenring copper of the
central European Early Bronze Age.94 However, this chemical match is by no means perfect as the Ösenring copper
typically also contains 0.1 % Bi, which should be measurable with an electron microprobe. However, this element
is not reported. Instead, gold concentrations between 0.01
and 0.12 % are listed in Ling and colleagues in 2013 but not
in 2014,95 while Höppner et al.96 did not detect any gold in
the Ösenring samples analysed. Moreover, 96 % of about
2700 analyses of Ösenringe in the Stuttgart project contain
less than 0.1 % lead, which is corroborated by Höppner et
al. who reported less than 0.01 % lead in all the Ösenring
samples analysed from Gammersham, Bavaria.97 On the
other hand, only two out of sixteen Swedish copper objects
with a fahlore signature contain less than 0.1 % Pb, while
the others contain between 0.2 and 1.3 % Pb. One rod of
lead is even assigned to the Tyrol, although there are no lead
deposits in the Inn Valley. There is nevertheless a chance
that this type of copper derives from the Tyrol, because
there is a match with three ore samples from the Triassic
limestone unit, which has been much less investigated than
the regional dolomite ores and with copper spills from the
Early Bronze Age smelting site at Buchberg in the Inn Valley (Fig. 19).98
If we accept for the moment that copper from central
Europe reached Sweden in the second millennium BC, then
the question is why this should not also be true for Mitterberg copper, especially because the pattern of metal supply
within this period is rather similar in central Europe and
60
40
20
0
LN II + Per I
Per II
Per III
Per IV
Per V
Fig. 20. – Top: Abundances of copper with fahlore and chalcopyrite
signatures produced in the eastern Alps from the beginning of the
Bronze Age into the Hallstatt period based on the compositions
of some 1200 prehistoric metal artefacts from Tyrol, Salzburg and
southern Bavaria. – Bottom: Abundances of copper with fahlore and
chalcopyrite signatures in 70 metal artefacts from Sweden (Ling et
al. 2014) in roughly the same time range (CEZA, Mannheim).
in southern Sweden (Fig. 20). Therefore, one would expect
that both metal types could have been supplied from this
very active mining region in the Bronze Age. However, only
two out of fifteen Swedish copper objects with a chemical
signature that matches the Mitterberg ores and the Nebra
hoard respectively match the Mitterberg lead isotope signature (Fig. 21).
Before accepting the Mediterranean provenance of the
Swedish artefacts one should check archaeologically more
reasonable possibilities like the Slovakian Ore Mountains
that most likely were also exploited for copper in the central European Bronze Age,99 supplied the eastern parts of
Austria,100 and certainly also the Carpathian Basin with
copper.101 Furthermore, there are typological links between
Recently Garner et al. 2014.
Duberow, Pernicka, Krenn-Leeb 2009.
101 Pernicka et al. 2016.
99
100
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
40
L��� et al. 2014 Nebra type
2,10
Mitterberg
Mitterberg slag
208Pb/206Pb
2,06
2,02
1,98
1,94
1,90
0,70
0,74
0,78
0,82
0,86
0,90
207Pb/206Pb
Fig.21. Lead isotope ratios of Swedish copper objects (Ling et al. 2014) with a chemical signature that matches
the Mitterberg ores and the Nebra hoard compared with copper ores from the Mitterberg region (CEZA,
Mannheim).
Fig. 22. Alternative lead isotope diagram to compare the ratios of prehistoric metal objects from southern Sweden
(Ling et al. 2014) with copper ores from the Mitterberg region and from the Hron Valley in southern Slovakia
(Schreiner 2007) (CEZA, Mannheim).
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
41
Fig. 23. Concentrations of silver and nickel in prehistoric metal objects from southern Sweden (Ling et al. 2014) compared with copper ores from the Mitterberg region and from the
Hron valley in southern Slovakia (Schreiner 2007). The concentration of the ore samples
was recalculated assuming that the siderophile and chalcophile elements including copper
add up to 100 %. Only ore samples with more than 10 % copper were considered (CEZA,
Mannheim).
the Carpathian basin and southern Sweden as exemplified by the Apa-type swords102 and the enigmatic objects
of Balkåkra and Haschendorf/Hasfalva.103 In Figure 22 all
lead isotope ratios of Ling et al.104 are plotted together with
copper ores from the Mitterberg region and from the Hron
Valley in southern Slovakia.105 The latter are much less radiogenic than the Mitterberg ores and largely overlap with
the Swedish metal objects. The chemical composition of the
Slovakian copper ores also matches the bulk of the objects
(Fig. 23) so that there is no need to postulate a Mediterranean provenance for Bronze Age copper in southern Sweden. In this context it is worthwhile to note that fahlores also
occur in the Slovakian Ore Mountains.
We may now conclude that low-impurity copper and
copper with a fahlore signature reached southern Scandi102
103
104
105
Meller 2010.
Pernicka 2010.
Ling et al. 2014.
Schreiner 2007.
navia in periods I and II according to the Nordic chronology, whereby copper from Slovakia seems to predominate.
However, the number of analyses is probably too small to
draw final conclusions. For the later periods, especially the
central European Late Bronze Age coinciding with period
III, the situation is substantially complicated by the observation that copper from various sources was apparently
mixed. This has long been assumed by the appearance of
hoards of broken tools, implements, and fragments of ingots that are commonly interpreted as scrap metal.
9. Conclusion (T. Stöllner, E. Pernicka, J. Lutz)
According to the data now available for the ‘Mitterberg’
mining region, there is no doubt that this region was a major
producer of copper in Europe during the 18th and 8th centuries BC. Although the importance of Mitterberg was certainly recognised very early on, for a long time there was no
possibility to discuss the distribution of this copper in more
detail. Better understanding became possible thanks to
42
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
extensive analytical programmes on the trace element patterns of Bronze Age metal objects106 that identified a chemically distinct ‘east Alpine copper’ that seemed to derive from
chalcopyrite deposits in the Greywacke Zone. But it was not
possible to differentiate between various mining sectors.
This was, however, necessary to unfold the social dynamics behind the mining, trading and consumption practices
resulting in a new quality of discussion. For the first time it
is now possible to separate the different east Alpine mining
districts according to their lead isotope and trace element
characteristics in more detail, particularly those producing
copper from chalcopyrite deposits. In comparison with the
chemically more distinct fahlore deposits, such copper is
more difficult to identify in prehistoric artefacts. Although
this achievement still does not exclude other chalcopyrite
deposits (Slovakian Ore Mountains, Mediterranean deposits) in general, good arguments can be found to securely
identify the Mitterberg deposit copper either in artefacts
from central Germany (e.g. the Nebra hoard), from the Alps
(e.g. the Piller hoard107 but also from the Carpathian basin
like the Apa and the Hajdúsámson hoards.108 It is noteworthy that apart from the east Alpine deposits, the Slovakian
Ore Mountains also come into consideration as a source of
copper to the Nordic Bronze Age and to Sweden respectively. This has long been suspected by typological studies
that seem to suggest a link between the Carpathian basin and
southern Scandinavia in the Bronze Age. Therefore, it is not
necessary to claim that there was an influx of Mediterranean
copper to southern Scandinavia in the Bronze Age. Indeed,
most of the published analyses of Scandinavian copper and
bronze objects can be attributed to a source from central
Europe.
Concerning the amount of copper produced at Mitterberg, especially between the 16th and 12th centuries BC, it is
not surprising that this mining region dominated the metal
exchange of so-called east Alpine copper during the Middle
and Early Late Bronze Age, the period of the peak production. It is most likely that the largest part of the estimated
overall production was achieved during this time (Fig. 6).
Although we still have only a very rough idea about the
quantities that were consumed in the key market regions,
such as southern Germany and the Middle Danube area,
central and northern Germany, and the Carpathian basin,
it is obvious that the Mitterberg mines alone could not meet
demand in later periods. It is known that the early phases
Pittioni 1957. – Pittioni 1959. – Junghans, Sangmeister,
Schröder 1968a, b, c. – Junghans, Sangmeister, Schröder 1974.
107 See above and other regional examples such as the hoard from
Pass Lueg (Lutz 2011). – See also Stöllner et al. 2016.
108 Pernicka 2013. – Pernicka et al. 2016.
106
of the Late Bronze Age saw the rise of many production
regions that mined and processed chalcopyrite and also the
fahlores for copper,109 while the Mitterberg mining region
began to decline, which as yet cannot be fully explained.
As the 14C dates and their correlation with the vegetation
history indicates,110 it was probably a slow process with
ups and downs even with the opening of new mining fields
(Mitterberg eastern lodes) during the Urnfield period111 and
the Early Iron Age. It is, however, difficult to trace the Mitterberg copper during this period because of the seemingly
regular practice of metal mixing that dominated metal production in the eastern Alps.112
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Michael Brauns, Bernd Höppner and Thorsten Schifer (all Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie, Mannheim) for carrying out isotope and neutron activation analyses. We
are also indebted to Gerhard Tomedi (Universität Innsbruck, Institut für Archäologien) and Walter Stephan (Museum Fliess) for access
to prehistoric copper and bronze objects and to Robert Pils (Verein
Montandenkmal Arthurstollen, Bischofshofen) and Franz Vavtar
(Universität Innsbruck, Institut für Mineralogie und Petrographie)
for supporting the field survey and sampling of ores. Mapping and
statistical evaluation was supported by Annette Hornschuch and
Jona Schröder (DBM); insight into new dendrodates was provided
by K. Nicolussi, University of Innsbruck. This project was funded
by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF, SFB F 31) and by the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG).
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47
Ernst Pernicka
Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie
D6, 3
68159 Mannheim
Germany
ernst.pernicka@cez-archaeometrie.de
&
Institute of Earth Sciences
University of Heidelberg
Im Neuenheimer Feld 234-236
69120 Heidelberg
Germany
ernst.pernickageow.uni-heidelberg.de
Joachim Lutz
Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie
D6, 3
68159 Mannheim
Germany
joachim.lutz@cez-archaeometrie.de
Thomas Stöllner
Deutsches Bergbau-Museum
Herner Straße 45
44787 Bochum
Germany
thomas.stoellner@bergbaumuseum.de
&
Ruhr-University Bochum
Institute of Archaeological Studies
Pre- and Protohistory
Am Bergbaumuseum 31
44791 Bochum
thomas.stoellner@rub.de
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
48
Tab. 3. Sampling sites and laboratory numbers.
Lab no.
Field label
Location
N
E
MA-080582
Mitterberg 07-1
main lode, Annastollen
-
-
MA-080583
Mitterberg 07-2
Brander lode, Arthurstollen, Nordgang (compressor room)
-
-
MA-080584
MS 1
Brander lode
-
-
MA-080585
MS 4d
Brander lode
-
-
MA-080586
MS 6b
Brander lode
-
-
MA-080587
MS 7
Brander lode
-
-
MA-080588
MS 8b
Brander lode
-
-
MA-080589
MS 9
Brander lode
-
-
MA-081367
MB 12-1
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081368
MB 12-2
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081369
MB 12-3
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081370
MB 12-4
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081371
MB 12-5
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081372
MB 12-6
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081373
MB 12-7
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081374
MB 12-8
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081375
MB 12-9
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081376
MB 12-10
Birkstein lode, Halde Josef-/Ederstollen
47°21.877’
13°11.249’
MA-081377
MB 13
Brander lode, Arthurstollen, Südgang (Stollenmeter 502)
-
-
MA-081378
MB 14
Brander lode, Arthurstollen, Nordgang (Stollenmeter 490)
-
-
MA-081379
MB 15
Brander lode, Arthurstollen, Nordgang (Stollenmeter 946)
-
-
MA-081380
MB 16
Brander lode, Arthurstollen, Nordgang (compressor room)
-
-
MA-081381
MB 17-1
Brander lode, Arthurstollen, Nordgang (Tiefbau)
-
-
MA-081382
MB 17-2
Brander lode, Arthurstollen, Nordgang (Tiefbau)
-
-
MA-081383
MB 23
Brander lode, Höchstollen
-
-
MA-081384
MB 24
Brander lode, Arthurstollen
-
-
MA-081385
MB 1-1
main lode, mining dump Annastollen
47°24.546’
13°08.666’
MA-081386
MB 1-2
main lode, mining dump Annastollen
47°24.546’
13°08.666’
MA-081387
MB 1-3
main lode, mining dump Annastollen
47°24.546’
13°08.666’
MA-081388
MB 1-4
main lode, mining dump Annastollen
47°24.546’
13°08.666’
MA-081389
MB 1-5
main lode, mining dump Annastollen
47°24.546’
13°08.666’
MA-081390
MB 1-6
main lode, mining dump Annastollen
47°24.546’
13°08.666’
MA-081391
MB 1-7
main lode, mining dump Annastollen
47°24.546’
13°08.666’
MA-081392
MB 1-8
main lode, mining dump Annastollen
47°24.546’
13°08.666’
MA-081393
MB 2-1
main lode, mining dump Danielstollen
47°24.696’
13°09.009’
MA-081394
MB 2-2
main lode, mining dump Danielstollen
47°24.696’
13°09.009’
MA-081395
MB 2-3
main lode, mining dump Danielstollen
47°24.696’
13°09.009’
MA-081396
MB 2-4
main lode, mining dump Danielstollen
47°24.696’
13°09.009’
MA-081397
MB 2-5
main lode, mining dump Danielstollen
47°24.696’
13°09.009’
MA-081398
MB 2-6
main lode, mining dump Danielstollen
47°24.696’
13°09.009’
MA-081399
MB 18
Winkel lode, mining dump Im Naglgraben
47°23.680’
13°14.583’
MA-081400
MB 19
Winkel lode, mining dump
47°23.682’
13°14.683’
MA-081401
MB 20-1
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Oberer Palfner-Schurfstollen
47°22.792’
13°10.561’
MA-081402
MB 20-2
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Oberer Palfner-Schurfstollen
47°22.792’
13°10.561’
49
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
Tab. 3. continued.
Lab no.
Field label
Location
MA-081403
MB 20-3
MA-081404
MB 20-4
MA-081405
N
E
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Oberer Palfner-Schurfstollen
47°22.792’
13°10.561’
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Oberer Palfner-Schurfstollen
47°22.792’
13°10.561’
MB 21-1
Buchberg lode, mining dump Oberer Buchbergstollen
47°24.327’
13°14.339’
MA-081406
MB 21-2
Buchberg lode, mining dump Oberer Buchbergstollen
47°24.327’
13°14.339’
MA-081407
MB 21-3
Buchberg lode, mining dump Oberer Buchbergstollen
47°24.327’
13°14.339’
MA-081408
MB 21-4
Buchberg lode, mining dump Oberer Buchbergstollen
47°24.327’
13°14.339’
MA-081409
MB 7-1
main lode, stream bed near Maria-Hilf-Stollen
47°24.165’
13°07.207’
MA-081410
MB 7-2
main lode, stream bed near Maria-Hilf-Stollen
47°24.165’
13°07.207’
MA-081411
MB 7-3
main lode, stream bed near Maria-Hilf-Stollen
47°24.165’
13°07.207’
MA-081412
MB 7-4
main lode, stream bed near Maria-Hilf-Stollen
47°24.165’
13°07.207’
MA-081413
MB 7-5
main lode, stream bed near Maria-Hilf-Stollen
47°24.165’
13°07.207’
MA-081414
MB 7-6
main lode, stream bed near Maria-Hilf-Stollen
47°24.165’
13°07.207’
MA-081415
MB 7-7
main lode, stream bed near Maria-Hilf-Stollen
47°24.165’
13°07.207’
MA-081416
MB 7-8
main lode, stream bed near Maria-Hilf-Stollen
47°24.165’
13°07.207’
MA-081417
MB 9-1
main lode, stream bed near Josefi-Oberbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081418
MB 9-2
main lode, stream bed near Josefi-Oberbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081419
MB 9-3
main lode, stream bed near Josefi-Oberbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081420
MB 9-4
main lode, stream bed near Josefi-Oberbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081421
MB 9-5
main lode, stream bed near Josefi-Oberbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081422
MB 9-6
main lode, stream bed near Josefi-Oberbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081423
MB-10
main lode, stream bed beside Maria-Hilf-Stollen
47°24.407’
13°07.423’
MA-081424
MB 11-1
main lode, streambed near Josefi-Unterbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081425
MB 11-2
main lode, streambed near Josefi-Unterbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081426
MB 11-3
main lode, streambed near Josefi-Unterbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081427
MB 11-4
main lode, streambed near Josefi-Unterbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081428
MB 11-5
main lode, streambed near Josefi-Unterbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081429
MB 11-6
main lode, streambed near Josefi-Unterbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081430
MB 11-7
main lode, streambed near Josefi-Unterbau-Stollen
-
-
MA-081624
MB 21-5
Buchberg lode, mining dump Oberer Buchbergstollen
47°24.327’
13°14.339’
MA-081625
MB 21-6
Buchberg lode, mining dump Oberer Buchbergstollen
47°24.327’
13°14.339’
MA-081626
MB 19-2
Winkel lode, dump beside test trench
47°23.682’
13°14.683’
MA-081627
MB 19-3
Winkel lode, dump beside test trench
47°23.682’
13°14.683’
MA-081628
MB 26-1
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Luisenstollen
47°22.216’
13°11.279’
MA-081629
MB 26-2
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Luisenstollen
47°22.216’
13°11.279’
MA-081630
MB 26-3
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Luisenstollen
47°22.216’
13°11.279’
MA-081631
MB 26-4
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Luisenstollen
47°22.216’
13°11.279’
MA-081632
MB 26-5
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Luisenstollen
47°22.216’
13°11.279’
MA-081633
MB 26-6
Burgschwaig lode, mining dump Luisenstollen
47°22.216’
13°11.279’
MA-081634
MB 25-1
Taghaube
47°23.905’
13°03.674’
MA-081635
MB 25-2
Taghaube
47°23.905’
13°03.674’
MA-100344
MB 9-1-1
Buchberg lode
-
-
MA-100345
MB 9-1-2
Buchberg lode
-
-
MA-100346
MB 9-1-3
Buchberg lode
-
-
MA-100347
MB-9-1-4
Buchberg lode
-
-
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
50
Tab. 3. continued.
Lab no.
Field label
Location
N
E
MA-100348
MB- 9-1-5
Buchberg lode
-
-
MA-100349
MB 9-2-1
Winkel lode, prehistoric dump
-
-
MA-100350
MB 9-2-2
Winkel lode, prehistoric dump
-
-
MA-100351
MB 9-3-1
Winkel lode, mining dump Arzbergstollen
-
-
MA-100352
MB 9-3-2
Winkel lode, mining dump Arzbergstollen
-
-
MA-100353
MB 9-3-3
Winkel lode, mining dump Arzbergstollen
-
-
MA-100354
MB 9-3-4
Winkel lode, mining dump Arzbergstollen
-
-
MA-100355
Vieh-1-1
Viehhofen, prehistoric mining dump north of Viehhofen
-
-
MA-100356
Vieh-1-2
Viehhofen, prehistoric mining dump north of Viehhofen
-
-
MA-100357
Vieh-1-3
Viehhofen, prehistoric mining dump north of Viehhofen
-
-
MA-100358
Vieh-1-4
Viehhofen, prehistoric mining dump north of Viehhofen
-
-
MA-100359
Vieh-2-1
Viehhofen, quarry east of Viehhofen
-
-
MA-080975
KE 1
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080976
KE 2
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080979
KE 27
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080981
KE 28
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080980
KE 28a
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080977
KE 3
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080982
KE 32
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080983
KE 34
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080984
KE 35
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080985
KE 43
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080978
KE 5
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-081637
KE 6
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-081638
KES 7
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-081639
KE 43a
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kelchalm
-
-
MA-080989
KP 1
Kitzbühel-Jochberg, Kupferplatte
-
-
51
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
Tab. 4. Element concentrations in ore samples from the Mitterberg region as determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis (Cu, Fe,
As, Sb, Co, Ni, Ag, Au, Zn, Sn, Se, Te) and inductively coupled mass spectrometry (Pb, Bi); n.a. = not analysed; < = below detection limit.
Lab no.
Cu
Fe
As
Sb
Co
Ni
Ag
Au
Zn
Sn
Se
Te
Pb
Bi
%
%
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
MA-080582
22.8
16.0
291
16.3
8.2
124
6.6
0.12
89
< 110
5
<6
24.4
25.0
MA-080583
15.3
23.6
3800
40
890
2330
10.1
0.20
156
< 109
47
13
27.2
35
MA-080584
28.1
21.5
1340
1340
241
1250
10.1
0.53
930
< 100
43
8
13.0
10.4
MA-080585
7.0
21.2
8400
40
630
1040
4.4
0.29
89
< 66
37
8
32
19.4
MA-080586
7.2
12.6
1690
201
660
840
7.5
0.17
190
44
20
< 15
15.3
13.6
MA-080587
11.4
18.3
1590
17.3
450
1050
5.9
0.40
119
< 148
23
<9
20.8
13.6
MA-080588
18.7
19.0
3000
57
720
1480
13.5
0.24
219
< 69
32
< 12
18.0
18.1
MA-080589
7.8
9.5
2780
120
1090
880
6.0
1.04
136
< 215
25
10
10.7
25.2
MA-081367
20.1
14.8
63
7.0
1.50
< 150
12.4
0.05
85
< 89
2.4
<6
4.1
0.18
MA-081368
22.5
17.1
69
9.6
6.5
< 159
14.5
0.15
89
< 77
4.6
<7
3.1
0.26
MA-081369
25.0
17.6
33
26.2
2.71
104
14.1
0.11
255
< 207
7.3
3
7.2
0.32
MA-081370
20.0
19.1
440
29.8
69
153
20.4
0.20
82
< 248
7.9
<9
12.8
1.73
MA-081371
16.0
24.9
720
207
66
235
16.1
0.46
99
40
8.0
< 10
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081372
30
20.9
141
49
15.1
< 152
19.4
0.14
650
< 105
37
5
23.5
0.51
MA-081373
25.0
18.4
134
24.7
15.5
92
19.1
0.23
330
32
7.6
<8
5.8
0.61
MA-081374
17.3
22.4
420
27.6
81
< 179
5.2
0.25
139
41
7.6
<9
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081375
27.3
15.2
55
9.7
5.9
86
10.7
0.17
188
35
5.9
5
11.9
0.39
MA-081376
21.9
12.7
86
11.8
13.0
142
21.6
0.30
60
< 60
4.9
<8
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081377
33
17.8
5.9
3.9
41
350
47
0.10
1810
146
25.7
4
12.1
0.21
MA-081378
10.2
12.6
17000
156
770
13000
17.1
0.34
254
< 140
16.8
< 30
12.0
2.12
MA-081379
8.9
10.2
1440
39
264
2760
11.1
0.16
75
< 207
14.2
6
21.2
1.84
MA-081380
28.6
17.4
480
27.4
162
910
14.0
0.37
271
< 216
44
<9
61
1.76
MA-081381
13.7
22.5
660
135
520
1030
6.4
0.90
118
48
65
5
59
5.6
MA-081382
20.2
14.5
1180
124
320
780
10.2
0.61
420
40
34
< 13
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081383
3.0
19.0
610
9.3
1770
2210
3.1
0.14
400
< 530
18.3
< 41
6.9
2.14
MA-081384
15.7
11.7
1870
490
450
1380
20.8
0.32
171
< 300
28.4
< 20
58
9.6
MA-081385
22.6
15.4
800
12.1
35
630
13.7
0.14
99
< 154
12.4
< 11
8.4
0.57
MA-081386
16.2
13.9
300
8.2
58
233
3.0
0.08
72
< 65
14.3
<9
10.5
1.45
MA-081387
19.8
16.6
216
11.8
64
225
6.3
0.07
270
< 112
21.8
< 10
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081388
17.6
11.7
820
27.8
7.2
490
5.4
0.35
64
< 34
10.5
3
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081389
21.1
14.4
3900
20.3
59
1950
23.2
0.18
570
85
12.4
10
32
1.27
MA-081390
26.9
18.2
3400
23.8
61
2320
7.9
0.31
77
58
19.6
< 14
11.4
1.16
MA-081391
20.8
19.0
11000
58
224
8000
3.7
0.40
60
< 205
15.0
< 17
23.3
4.6
MA-081392
19.6
15.7
1550
28.8
116
1070
6.7
0.17
200
< 168
17.8
13
96
2.33
MA-081393
22.6
21.2
410
7.9
53
143
8.4
0.15
121
62
8.8
15
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081394
19.7
27.8
610
4.2
850
1010
10.0
0.79
53
201
36
< 27
9.3
12.4
MA-081395
17.9
19.7
132
20.7
18.2
161
7.6
0.09
203
< 320
16.5
< 21
9.4
1.45
MA-081396
30
27.5
20200
138
22.0
1360
32
0.24
3800
< 390
11.4
< 26
300
2.13
MA-081397
12.8
14.4
13200
76
219
9100
16.4
0.64
74
74
17.4
< 21
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081398
9.5
15.7
650
72
285
490
8.6
0.16
259
< 330
9.0
< 25
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081399
8.5
10.4
370
202
51
223
9.2
1.24
67
< 223
66
78
69
1310
MA-081400
17.6
0.50
360
1.84
330
87
<3
< 0.1
62
53
4.9
7
n.a.
n.a.
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
52
Tab. 4. continued.
Lab no.
Cu
Fe
As
Sb
Co
Ni
Ag
Au
Zn
Sn
Se
Te
Pb
Bi
%
%
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
MA-081401
17.5
17.5
1050
14.1
95
910
21.2
0.14
262
< 130
12.0
4
5.5
0.22
MA-081402
10.3
19.6
1830
22.8
670
1960
12.7
0.19
106
< 99
13.1
6
13.9
1.06
MA-081403
25.8
19.4
254
8.4
34
1700
36
0.27
480
< 81
15.5
4
8.8
0.13
MA-081404
12.8
18.3
1510
16.0
350
1670
16.7
0.16
220
< 139
12.6
7
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081405
9.4
8.0
310
19.2
230
274
15.9
0.64
1050
42
6.3
5
134
1.41
MA-081406
2.36
16.7
320
31
290
215
4
0.12
14.8
56
4.4
<7
18.6
9.6
MA-081407
4.2
19.4
148
8.7
410
480
<2
0.09
68
< 200
13.6
< 10
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081408
12.3
8.6
271
10.8
18.2
< 117
13.2
0.06
400
< 58
3.9
5
19.7
0.47
MA-081409
33
17.4
3300
13.1
103
1510
10.3
0.57
277
117
9.1
<6
42
3.2
MA-081410
16.8
16.2
650
46
137
1200
7.5
0.15
18.8
89
9.2
<6
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081411
21.8
15.8
9300
71
147
6100
20.1
0.81
205
55
18.4
<7
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081412
24.5
14.0
1160
197
71
510
6.4
0.09
130
< 202
26.3
<8
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081413
21.1
14.0
14600
68
287
8100
17.2
0.23
164
40
15.6
<8
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081414
23.8
14.0
4700
38
89
2030
9.3
0.52
420
93
7.8
4
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081415
21.9
12.4
4600
35
109
2560
11.4
0.39
132
35
6.1
<7
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081416
14.3
18.4
1910
28.9
39
1220
8.4
0.48
51
< 34
10.3
<7
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081417
19.2
14.0
310
47
18.7
520
6.0
0.19
31
< 297
< 10
< 13
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081418
10.2
18.9
1290
95
112
219
<4
< 0.1
31
< 440
21.4
< 20
9.0
2.21
MA-081419
22.6
14.2
38
47
59
48
8.3
0.07
25.5
< 123
13.0
6
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081420
16.2
8.1
330
32
11.4
310
4.9
0.14
25.1
< 276
4.6
6
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081421
5.0
21.1
3600
3300
191
390
65
0.18
640
< 710
23.4
< 27
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081422
19.9
25.9
1220
80
141
1190
12.8
0.18
155
126
16.8
<7
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081423
20.0
20.2
3100
11.1
85
1450
6.6
0.43
62
53
2.2
<6
7.6
3.8
MA-081424
19.6
17.9
13200
66
320
6600
8.5
0.12
115
32
25.2
<9
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081425
19.0
17.6
119
17.3
21.1
< 173
21.8
0.04
158
< 156
13.1
< 11
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081426
29.7
18.4
650
27.0
9.9
400
< 10
0.15
198
< 330
14.8
14
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081427
21.3
13.4
3500
153
65
1530
17.4
0.21
284
< 340
9.6
< 13
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081428
21.1
18.5
196
32
147
278
<2
0.15
32
< 68
22.2
<9
49
1.34
MA-081429
13.5
12.6
11400
94
173
7800
17.5
0.71
78
< 340
16.4
< 13
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081430
27.8
17.8
1930
23.7
77
1400
15.6
0.15
< 21
< 310
11.1
< 14
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081624
13.5
17.4
480
18.8
370
720
7.9
0.13
217
< 37
4.9
3
25.5
2.21
MA-081625
9.4
8.5
88
5.2
59
262
5.0
0.15
125
< 108
2.1
<5
9.3
0.55
MA-081626
4.5
3.5
222
44
6.5
24
2.8
0.06
23.0
17
20.3
<5
2.66
1.15
MA-081627
8.0
5.6
330
4.8
5.9
22
9.6
0.09
108
24
19.8
1
52
0.80
MA-081628
19.7
12.9
7.7
11.1
15.9
500
7.4
0.16
136
< 122
10.6
<6
43
0.11
MA-081629
19.0
13.9
1670
12.9
279
2070
13.4
0.21
380
< 153
8.4
<8
32
1.60
MA-081630
14.0
11.5
1850
23.4
360
9100
10.0
0.16
200
27
5.3
7
28.0
1.14
MA-081631
22.7
15.5
145
6.9
115
9200
6.5
0.11
100
< 47
2.5
<1
17.9
0.78
MA-081632
10.2
14.0
55
11.0
260
12600
11.4
0.05
31
< 330
5.3
< 14
n.a.
n.a.
MA-081633
18.1
15.9
280
28.3
73
6300
11.3
0.06
37
320
3.7
< 13
7.1
0.26
MA-081634
14.0
31
370
530
102
271
34
0.06
68
< 470
13.2
< 21
5.5
1.79
MA-081635
12.8
33
400
340
212
740
21.9
0.09
60
< 390
13.9
< 18
14.4
4.2
53
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
Tab. 4. continued.
Lab no.
Cu
Fe
As
Sb
Co
Ni
Ag
Au
Zn
Sn
Se
Te
Pb
Bi
%
%
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
μg/g
MA-100344
3.7
8.2
51
8.4
67
50
4.8
0.02
40
< 35
2.2
<7
5.4
0.6
MA-100345
6.1
10.5
69
2.35
155
130
7
0.06
124
< 130
2.4
2
5.6
0.3
MA-100346
4.5
12.5
211
4.7
186
200
6.4
0.137
64
< 130
3.2
<7
7.0
1.6
MA-100347
7.0
10.9
151
3.6
16.4
50
4.6
0.029
140
< 58
2.5
<7
4.5
0.1
MA-100348
11.7
12.2
77
3.7
48
60
7.7
0.03
194
< 120
3
<7
8.8
0.5
MA-100349
11.3
10.8
650
85
100
50
10.5
0.095
147
< 120
52
<8
136
3.9
MA-100350
5.9
6.6
360
10.6
23
110
8.8
0.144
90
< 34
32
3
10.5
2.4
MA-100351
27.8
25.0
650
25.7
61
360
62
1.7
2040
80
20.6
<9
40
6.3
MA-100352
3.4
9.7
66000
144
1160
90
13.6
< 0.2
180
< 81
18.7
< 16
23.8
23.4
MA-100353
6.6
9.1
1190
16.6
175
90
6.5
0.11
239
< 150
19
< 10
7.1
2.0
MA-100354
5.1
4.3
1840
6.8
127
60
11.3
0.13
160
< 110
15.2
6
5.5
4.8
MA-100355
7.1
12.5
620
15.6
220
510
16.7
0.168
44
60
18.5
<9
24.2
1.5
MA-100356
5.0
8.1
470
7.8
146
420
8.4
0.085
34
< 110
35
<8
13.7
1.8
MA-100357
5.4
8.8
490
6.7
127
440
9.7
0.08
27
< 47
29.8
<9
13.5
2.2
MA-100358
6.9
6.6
144
3.8
35
110
11.9
0.032
28
< 100
10.5
3
8.2
0.5
MA-100359
47
16.4
540
7.6
300
1260
9
0.15
71
< 150
145
< 12
14.2
1.8
MA-080975
16.6
9.9
370
10.9
148
224
23.4
0.15
91
< 125
14
6
13.1
20.6
MA-080976
27.7
15.5
4.0
5.6
4.7
48
12.9
0.12
48
< 60
133
4
21.8
12.2
MA-080979
12.5
18.3
17.4
7.1
155
750
4.1
0.41
15
< 68
139
10
30
51
MA-080981
14.6
13.6
98
8.2
77
283
5.5
0.21
12
< 159
110
< 16
31
25.1
MA-080980
20.9
14.2
6.3
3.5
34
252
5.3
0.34
22
143
116
<8
20.9
29.3
MA-080977
8.3
6.9
6.2
3.1
54
112
7.2
0.04
56
< 64
45
< 10
12.5
8.4
MA-080982
14.7
16.2
280
9.0
185
450
5.6
0.94
1160
58
133
< 16
123
122
MA-080983
12.9
13.2
134
11.2
149
291
4.0
0.32
33
< 74
66
10
33
58
MA-080984
14.0
11.0
141
6.5
79
230
5.3
0.26
111
< 67
82
< 13
180
75
MA-080985
27.4
14.6
63
4.6
53
< 74
12.3
0.19
43
< 66
145
7
19.0
17.7
MA-080978
25.3
14.1
4.0
6.5
5.5
91
9.2
0.13
44
43
109
7
13.7
9.8
MA-081637
11.7
10.1
74
5.9
42
< 132
4.5
0.16
51
< 231
58
11
n.d.
n.d.
MA-081638
21.0
19.9
105
9.1
138
200
13.1
0.32
262
< 320
119
< 17
n.d.
n.d.
MA-081639
23.3
7.2
13.6
1.93
4.8
< 99
3.9
0.12
15.6
< 222
23.8
6
n.d.
n.d.
MA-080989
31
16.6
94
11.3
40
< 106
36
0.10
112
99
17
51
36
12.8
Ernst Pernicka, Joachim Lutz, Thomas Stöllner
54
Tab. 5. Lead isotope ratios in ore samples from the Mitterberg region as determined by multi collector inductively coupled mass spectrometry.
The precision of measurement is less than ± 0.01 % for ratios with 206Pb in the denominator and up to ± 0.03 % for 206Pb/204Pb.
Lab no.
208
Pb/206Pb
207
Pb/206Pb
206
Pb/204Pb
Lab no.
208
Pb/206Pb
207
Pb/206Pb
206
Pb/204Pb
MA-080582
1.9506
0.76286
20.697
MA-081428
1.9820
0.77842
20.248
MA-080583
2.0247
0.80003
19.668
MA-081624
2.0718
0.82074
19.125
MA-080584
2.0406
0.80960
19.415
MA-081625
2.0729
0.82271
19.073
MA-080585
2.0342
0.80424
19.558
MA-081626
2.0893
0.83261
18.859
MA-080586
2.0378
0.80788
19.458
MA-081627
2.0966
0.83710
18.754
MA-080587
2.0172
0.79758
19.730
MA-081628
2.0503
0.81326
19.321
MA-080588
2.0388
0.80836
19.447
MA-081629
2.0478
0.80931
19.428
MA-080589
2.0406
0.80944
19.427
MA-081630
2.0435
0.80563
19.522
MA-081367
1.9894
0.78407
20.101
MA-081631
2.0357
0.79888
19.691
MA-081368
2.0396
0.82366
19.031
MA-081633
2.0637
0.82175
19.097
MA-081369
1.9462
0.76366
20.678
MA-081634
2.0223
0.80523
19.531
MA-081370
1.9968
0.79159
19.894
MA-081635
2.0031
0.7961
19.765
MA-081372
1.9926
0.78955
19.944
MA-100344
2.0764
0.81741
19.208
MA-081373
2.0334
0.80943
19.415
MA-100345
2.0692
0.81256
19.329
MA-081375
2.0468
0.83419
18.766
MA-100346
2.0657
0.81928
19.160
MA-081377
2.0320
0.79670
19.733
MA-100347
2.0727
0.82506
19.010
MA-081378
1.9006
0.69971
22.697
MA-100348
2.0590
0.81526
19.254
MA-081379
2.0249
0.79952
19.678
MA-100349
2.0978
0.83376
18.839
MA-081380
2.0259
0.79932
19.678
MA-100350
2.0731
0.82934
18.926
MA-081381
2.0394
0.80662
19.494
MA-100351
2.0002
0.77276
20.422
MA-081383
2.0267
0.80010
19.665
MA-100352
2.0401
0.79974
19.693
MA-081384
2.0154
0.79152
19.890
MA-100353
2.0663
0.81755
19.233
MA-081385
1.9938
0.78264
20.137
MA-100354
2.0484
0.80517
19.546
MA-081386
1.9429
0.76350
20.671
MA-100355
2.0926
0.84995
18.430
MA-081389
1.9067
0.73051
21.683
MA-100356
2.0818
0.83608
18.768
MA-081390
1.9862
0.77856
20.249
MA-100357
2.0681
0.82343
19.074
MA-081391
2.0082
0.79452
19.802
MA-100358
2.0857
0.83905
18.693
MA-081392
1.9560
0.76591
20.612
MA-100359
2.0822
0.84040
18.658
MA-081394
2.0027
0.78665
20.036
MA-080975
2.0522
0.83268
18.829
MA-081395
1.9447
0.75977
20.785
MA-080976
2.0964
0.82880
18.922
MA-081396
1.9264
0.73940
21.403
MA-080979
2.0910
0.81932
19.202
MA-081399
2.0194
0.78796
20.016
MA-080981
2.0976
0.80315
19.615
MA-081401
2.0564
0.81530
19.268
MA-080980
2.0880
0.81619
19.277
MA-081402
2.0536
0.81252
19.345
MA-080977
2.0814
0.83662
18.750
MA-081403
2.0443
0.80595
19.507
MA-080982
2.0975
0.80686
19.495
MA-081405
2.0672
0.82328
19.057
MA-080983
2.0978
0.80582
19.546
MA-081406
2.0753
0.81997
19.152
MA-080984
2.0997
0.80650
19.540
MA-081408
2.0726
0.82894
18.918
MA-080985
2.0987
0.82929
18.948
MA-081409
2.0468
0.81917
19.174
MA-080978
2.0904
0.83580
18.791
MA-081418
1.8825
0.72733
21.771
MA-080989
1.6772
0.68406
23.248
MA-081423
1.9549
0.76661
20.584
Bronze Age Copper Produced at Mitterberg, Austria, and its Distribution
Tab. 6. Lead isotope ratios in slag samples from different slag heaps as determined by multi collector inductively coupled
mass spectrometry. The precision of measurement is less than ± 0.01 % for ratios with 206Pb in the denominator and up to
± 0.03 % for 206Pb/204Pb.
Lab no.
Location
MA-091529
SP AA Widersberg-Alp. Schlacke am Bach
208
Pb/206Pb
2.0155
207
Pb/206Pb
0.80029
206
Pb/204Pb
19.655
MA-091530
SP 04 Widersberg-Alp
1.9839
0.78589
20.032
MA-091531
SP 06 Dientner Sattel
2.0187
0.80220
19.609
MA-091532
SP 07 Dientner Sattel
2.0157
0.80228
19.602
MA-091533
SP 09 Dientner Sattel
2.0144
0.80139
19.629
MA-091534
SP 12 Widersberg-Alp
2.0108
0.79691
19.749
MA-091536
SP 13 S-Teil Widersberg-Alp
2.0018
0.79448
19.813
MA-091537
SP 14 Widersberg-Alp
2.0082
0.79958
19.671
MA-091538
SP 14A Widersberg-Alp
2.0257
0.80679
19.482
MA-091539
SP 15-1 Widersberg-Alp. Kopphütte
2.0013
0.79688
19.735
MA-091540
SP 15-2 Widersberg-Alp. Kopphütte
2.0570
0.83214
18.822
MA-091541
SP 16 Kopphütte
2.0213
0.80571
19.509
MA-091542
SP 22 Windrauchegg
2.0251
0.80753
19.468
MA-091543
SP 23 Hochkeil
2.0252
0.80715
19.475
MA-091544
SP 40 Widersberg-Alp
1.9914
0.78976
19.936
MA-091545
SP 47 Hochkeil
1.9808
0.78415
20.089
MA-091546
SP 59-1 Burgschwaig
2.0496
0.82282
19.065
MA-091547
SP 59-2 Burgschwaig
2.0105
0.78117
20.179
MA-091548
SP 64 Winklgang
2.0533
0.81656
19.226
MA-091549
MB 08-03 Hauptgang Nähe Danielstollen
2.0208
0.80518
19.527
MA-091550
MB 08-22/1 Buchberg
2.0722
0.83483
18.777
MA-091551
MB 08-22/2 Buchberg
2.0933
0.84738
18.480
55